Follow-on milk: From when, why & which is the right one?

2′-fucosyllactose (2′-FL)

2′-fucosyllactose (2′-FL) is one of the human milk oligosaccharides (HMO) found in the largest quantities in breast milk. In the infant’s intestine, 2′-fucosyllactose can be metabolised by beneficial intestinal bacteria such as the bifidobacteria and lactobacilli, thereby positively influencing the intestinal flora.

Alpha-linolenic acid (ALA)

The alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) is a long-chain, polyunsaturated fatty acid and belongs to the group of essential omega-3 fatty acids, as it must be supplied with food. It is needed in the body to form the omega-3 fatty acids docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), which contribute to the development of normal brain and nerve cells as well as vision.

Arachidonic acid (ARA)

Arachidonic acid (ARA) is a polyunsaturated fatty acid and belongs to the group of omega-6 fatty acids. It can be formed in the body from the essential omega-6 fatty acid linoleic acid (LA). However, infants are not yet sufficiently capable of this process. This is why ARA and the omega-3 fatty acid docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) must be supplied in the diet during infancy. Both fatty acids make up about 25% of the fatty acid content of the brain and are important structural components of nerve and brain cells.

Biotin

Biotin (or vitamin B7) belongs to the water-soluble vitamins of the B group. Biotin is also colloquially known as vitamin H, because the vitamin contributes to the maintenance of normal skin and hair by being involved in the body’s own production of keratin. As a coenzyme, it is involved in fat, carbohydrate and protein metabolism and plays a role in regulating blood sugar levels. Biotin thereby contributes to a normal energy metabolism.

Calcium

Calcium is the mineral that is present in the human body in the greatest quantity. Calcium, like magnesium, is necessary for building bones and teeth. Furthermore, calcium plays an essential role in the transmission of stimuli in muscle and nerve cells and thereby contributes to normal muscle function. Calcium is also involved in blood clotting and the function of numerous enzymes.

L-carnitine

L-carnitine is found in the body primarily in the heart and skeletal muscles and is formed from the amino acids lysine and methionine. For infants, an additional supply through food is important, especially in the phase of strong growth. L-carnitine is involved in fat metabolism because it is essential for the transport of long-chain fatty acids through the membrane of the mitochondria, which function as the “power plants of the cell”. There, the fatty acids are metabolised in the so-called beta-oxidation process and thus serve the body’s energy production. The heart in particular gets its energy from burning long-chain fatty acids.

Choline

Choline is a vitamin-like compound and is needed in the body for the production of the important neurotransmitter acetylcholine, among other things. Acetylcholine, in turn, plays an important role in memory, muscle movement, regular heartbeat and other basic functions of the body. Choline in the form of phosphatidylcholine is significantly involved in fat digestion and fat transport. Together with bile acids as part of mixed micelles, it converts the fat-soluble cleavage products from fat digestion into a water-soluble form, thus facilitating their absorption from the small intestine. As a component of very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL), phosphatidylcholine is also involved in the transport of fatty acids from the liver to the tissues and thereby contributes to normal liver function. In addition, phosphatidylcholine is an important structural component of the cell membrane.

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is a long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid and belongs to the omega-3 fatty acids. DHA is involved in the formation of nerve cell connections and signal transmission in the brain, contributing to normal brain function. In addition, DHA is an important component of the retina and the receptor cells of the eye. In infants up to 12 months of age, DHA thereby contributes to normal vision development*
Legislation requires DHA to be added to infant formula and follow-on formula.

* The positive effect is achieved with a daily intake of 100 mg DHA.

Iron

Iron is a trace element and is present in food as haem iron (meat) or non-haem iron (plant-based foods). These differ in their bioavailability, more precisely in how much can be absorbed by the body. Breast milk contains only a little iron in the form of lactoferrin, but this is very well absorbed by the body. As a component of the red blood pigment (haemoglobin) of the red blood cells, iron is essential for the transport of oxygen in the blood and is necessary for the transport and storage of oxygen by myoglobin in the muscles. Iron is a component of many enzymes and has, among other things, an impact on energy metabolism through electron transfer in the respiratory chain of the cells and is a component of antioxidant enzymes. Iron also plays an important role in the immune defence process and in the development and function of the brain. Furthermore, iron is essential for the growth and development of all cell functions as well as for the synthesis of certain hormones.

Folate

The terms folate and folic acid are frequently used as synonyms. Folic acid is the synthetic form used in fortified foods and vitamin supplements because of its stability, while folate occurs naturally in plant- and animal-based foods and in active form in the human body. Folate is an essential water-soluble vitamin of the B group and is involved in a variety of metabolic and growth processes. By contributing to the construction of DNA, folate plays an important role in cell division and is therefore essential for growth. During pregnancy, folate is crucial for the normal development of the embryo, as the vitamin is involved in the development of the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and in the formation of genetic information. Folate is furthermore needed for the formation of red and white blood cells.

Galacto-oligosaccharides (GOS)

Galacto-oligosaccharides (GOS) occur naturally in breast milk. Industrially, GOS is produced from lactose and belongs to the group of prebiotic dietary fibres. They enter the large intestine undigested and can be metabolised by beneficial bifidobacteria and lactobacilli, thereby positively influencing the intestinal flora.

Human milk oligosaccharides (HMO)

Human milk oligosaccharides (HMO) are the third-largest solid component in breast milk after lactose and fat. So far, over 150 different HMOs have been identified in breast milk. The 2′-fucosyllactose (2′-FL) is the most frequently occurring HMO. HMOs belong to the dietary fibres and cannot be digested directly by the infant. In the infant’s intestine, however, they can have a prebiotic effect by being metabolised by intestinal bacteria such as the bifidobacteria and lactobacilli. In this way, they promote the growth of these bacteria and support the development of a balanced intestinal flora. Building on this, further HMOs are constantly being added, making it possible to increasingly imitate the diversity of HMOs in breast milk. These include lacto-N-tetraose (LNT), 3-fucosyllactose (3-FL), 6′-sialyllactose (6′-SL) and 3′-sialyllactose (3′-SL). HMOs belong to the dietary fibers and cannot be digested directly by the infant. However, they can have a prebiotic effect in the infant’s intestine by being metabolized by intestinal bacteria such as bifidobacteria and lactobacilli. They thus promote the growth of these bacteria and support the development of a balanced intestinal flora.

Inositol

The human body has the ability to build inositol from glucose itself. In certain phases of life (growth in infancy and in children), the body has an increased need for inositol, which should be additionally covered by the diet. As a component of the IP3 membrane receptor, inositol is part of the cell membrane that, as a so-called “second messenger”, converts extracellular signals from, for example, hormones, growth factors or neurotransmitters into intracellular processes through a signalling cascade (in this case the release of calcium from the intracellular calcium stores). Depending on the cell, this signalling cascade results in cellular processes such as secretion, contraction (in the case of muscle cells), metabolism and cell proliferation (cell division and cell growth). For example, inositol is involved in the signal transduction of neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine as well as hormones such as serotonin or oxytocin. In addition, inositol influences the growth of brain and nerve cells in the nervous system. Inositol furthermore plays an important role in the development of the lungs and eyes.

Iodine

The trace element iodine plays a role in the organism mainly for the production of the thyroid hormones triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4), which are released into the bloodstream when needed.
These thyroid hormones control the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins and fats and thereby influence the energy metabolism. In addition, T3 and T4 are important for the healthy functioning of the heart and circulation as well as digestion. For the foetus into toddlerhood, iodine is important for bone formation, normal physical growth and brain development.

Locust bean gum

Locust bean gum is used in the food industry as a thickener and gelling agent. It is rich in soluble, viscous, indigestible but fermentable dietary fibre. As a binding agent, it can be an effective solution for gastrointestinal reflux by thickening infant formula so that it is less likely to flow back up.

Potassium

Potassium is an essential mineral and is one of the most important positively charged ions (cations) in the body. Potassium is needed in every cell and is predominantly found inside the cells. Potassium, like sodium, is crucial in signal transduction between nerve and muscle cells and is therefore important for muscle contractions, heart function and regulating blood pressure. Furthermore, potassium, together with sodium and chloride, is a component of the electrolyte balance and therefore involved in regulating the water balance and the acid-base balance.

Casein

Caseins make up the majority of milk proteins with approx. 80%. They belong to the group of phosphoproteins (proteins that are linked to one or more phosphate groups). There are a total of four different caseins, namely alpha-S1, alpha-S2, beta and kappa casein. The caseins assemble into micelles (which are small spherical aggregates), each consisting of thousands of casein molecules. Caseins serve to store and transport proteins, phosphate and calcium. Digestion of casein is very slow and can take up to eight hours. In the infant’s stomach, at a low pH, caseins begin to precipitate with the assistance of the protease gastricin (a protein-cleaving enzyme). The water-soluble caseins (also called caseinogen) are converted into a water-insoluble form (called paracasein), making them accessible to the protease pepsin. The ratio of whey to casein in cow’s milk is 20:80, whereas the ratio in breast milk it is 60:40. Accordingly, our follow-on milks are adapted to this ratio.

Copper

The essential trace element copper is a central component of numerous enzymes and involved in a multitude of metabolic processes. Among other things, copper is indispensable for iron absorption and the formation of red blood cells and is therefore involved in iron metabolism and transport. Copper is also needed for the production of melanin and therefore contributes to normal skin and hair pigmentation. The trace element is furthermore also involved in the production of collagen and elastin in the connective tissue. It also supports normal immune system function.

Lactose

Lactose (or milk sugar) is a disaccharide of glucose and galactose and forms the main carbohydrate in mammalian milk. Compared to all mammalian milks, human breast milk has the highest lactose content with an average of 7 g/100 ml. Lactose serves as a quick energy supplier for the brain and skeletal muscles.
The infant’s metabolism is not yet fully developed and consequently cannot yet digest the entire amount of lactose. This is why some of the lactose enters the intestine, where it is metabolised by the intestinal bacteria. This can promote the growth of healthy gut bacteria such as bifidobacteria and lactobacilli.

Linoleic acid (LA)

The terms folate and folic acid are frequently used as synonyms. Folic acid is the synthetic form used in fortified foods and vitamin supplements because of its stability, while folate occurs naturally in plant- and animal-based foods and in active form in the human body. Folate is an essential water-soluble vitamin of the B group and is involved in a variety of metabolic and growth processes. By contributing to the construction of DNA, folate plays an important role in cell division and is therefore essential for growth. During pregnancy, folate is crucial for the normal development of the embryo, as the vitamin is involved in the development of the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and in the formation of genetic information. Folate is furthermore needed for the formation of red and white blood cells.

Magnesium

The mineral magnesium, together with calcium, is necessary for building bones and teeth. Magnesium is also involved in the activity of about 300 enzymes as an enzyme component or coenzyme and therefore plays an important role in the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins and fats as well as in cell division, among other things. Magnesium is furthermore involved in the transmission of nerve impulses and therefore contributes to the normal function of the nervous system and muscle function. Magnesium is also involved in the regulation and storage of hormones.

Manganese

Manganese is one of the essential trace elements and plays an important role in numerous processes in the body. For instance, manganese is involved in the formation of connective tissue and enzymes, which in turn are essential for the formation of collagen in cartilage and joint fluids in particular. Manganese activates a number of enzymes that act as antioxidants and help protect cells from oxidative stress. Manganese is furthermore involved in the formation of certain hormones such as insulin and in the carbohydrate, protein and fat metabolism as well as the cholesterol metabolism through enzymes containing manganese.

Anhydrous milk fat (AMF)

Anhydrous milk fat (AMF) is obtained from the cream of fresh cow’s milk. 88-89% of the lipids in milk fat are in the form of triglycerides, in which saturated and unsaturated fatty acids are bound to the framework of glycerol. Palmitic acid is the most abundant saturated fatty acid in cow’s milk at about 26%, with about 40% (as much as 60% in breast milk) of the palmitic acid in the triglycerides bound to the sn-2 position of glycerol (known as beta-palmitate). The importance of sn-2 binding lies in the regulation of digestion and subsequent fat absorption. In fat digestion, lipases preferentially separate fatty acids in the sn-1 and sn-3 positions, while the middle position is relatively resistant to the lytic activity of these enzymes. Sufficient lipase activity produces free fatty acids and 2-monoacylglycerol, which subsequently forms micelles with bile acids and is rapidly absorbed. However, free saturated fatty acids such as palmitic acid can form insoluble calcium soaps with calcium and thereby reduce the overall availability of calcium. If, in contrast, palmitic acid is bound to glycerol in the sn-2 position, it does not form compounds with calcium but is absorbed. Beta-palmitate can thus exert a favourable effect on the absorption of fat and calcium.

Whey protein

Apart from caseins, whey proteins are the second important component of milk proteins. Whey proteins mainly include albumins and globulins. Whey protein is considered a complete protein because it contains all nine essential amino acids and therefore has a high biological value. Biological value is a measure of how efficiently dietary proteins can be used to make the body’s own proteins. Whey proteins, unlike caseins, are digested more quickly because they can be absorbed rapidly in the digestive tract. The ratio of whey to casein in cow’s milk is 20:80, whereas in breast milk it is 60:40. Our follow-on milks are adapted according to this ratio in breast milk.

Sodium

The mineral sodium is present in all cells and body fluids (blood and fluid surrounding the cells). Together with potassium (inside the cell), sodium (outside the cell) is involved in the sodium-potassium pump, which plays an important role in the transfer of information between cells and the transmission of impulses from nerve and muscle cells. As an electrolyte, sodium, together with potassium and chloride, helps to stabilise the water balance, regulate blood pressure and the acid-base balance.

Nucleotides

Nucleotides are non-protein nitrogen compounds and form the basic building blocks of DNA and RNA. They are therefore present in all body cells, including adequate amounts in breast milk. The body has the ability to produce nucleotides itself. However, this synthesis costs a lot of energy and in phases of rapid growth, the body’s own production is not sufficient and additional intake of nucleotides from food is necessary. Nucleotides and their metabolites play key roles in many biological processes, such as the assembly of proteins and the transfer of energy between cells. But they are also essential in regulating hormone metabolism and fat metabolism. In addition, nucleotides promote a healthy digestive and immune system.

Niacin

Niacin (or vitamin B3) is a water-soluble vitamin of the B group and is also known as nicotinic acid and nicotinamide. These terms suggest a connection with the nicotine contained in tobacco, but this is not the case.
Niacin, in the form of the coenzymes NAD/NADH and NADP/NADPH, plays a significant role in the breakdown and synthesis of carbohydrates, fats and proteins as well as in energy metabolism in the mitochondria (also known as the “power plants of the cell”). Furthermore, niacin is important, among other things, for the repair of DNA in the cell as well as for cell division by being involved in the formation of nucleotides as building blocks for DNA and RNA.

Omega-6 fatty acids

Omega-6 fatty acids belong to the polyunsaturated fatty acids. The designation “omega-6” indicates at which carbon atom in the chain the first double bond is found (in the case of omega-6, this is after the sixth carbon atom in the chain, starting from the “omega end”). Omega-6 fatty acids belong to the essential fatty acids, which means they are essential for life and cannot be produced by the body itself. Well-known omega-6 fatty acids are linoleic acid (LA) and arachidonic acid (ARA).

Phosphorus

Phosphorus is a mineral and is stored in the body as phosphate, mainly in the bones. This makes phosphate an important structural component of bones and teeth. In addition, phosphate is a component of phospholipids, which are important basic building blocks of the cell membrane. As such, phosphorus is necessary for the growth, maintenance and repair of tissues and cells. Phosphate is also involved in energy metabolism: energy-rich phosphate compounds (ATP) are present in the cell plasma and provide the cells with energy for various metabolic processes through a chemical reaction. Furthermore, phosphate is a component of DNA and acts as an acid buffer in the blood and urine.

Pantothenic acid

Pantothenic acid (or vitamin B5) is a water-soluble vitamin and belongs to the group of B vitamins.
As a component of coenzyme A, it is involved in the breakdown of fats, carbohydrates and various amino acids and thus contributes to a normal energy metabolism. Pantothenic acid is furthermore important for the body’s own formation of fatty acids, cholesterol, steroid hormones and some neurotransmitters.

Riboflavin

Riboflavin (or vitamin B2) belongs to the water-soluble vitamins of the B group. Riboflavin, in the form of the flavin coenzymes FAD and FMN, is involved in numerous metabolic processes, including the respiratory chain, fat, protein and carbohydrate metabolism, and is thus indispensable for the body’s energy production in the mitochondria (also known as the “power plants of the cell”). In addition, the flavin coenzymes are involved in the regeneration of the “glutathione system”, which plays a central role in the body’s “antioxidant network” for neutralising free radicals. In this way, riboflavin helps to protect the cells and DNA from oxidative stress. In addition, riboflavin plays an important role overall in normal cell function, growth and development.

Selenium

Selenium is an essential trace element and, in the form of the amino acid selenocysteine, an important building block of selenium-dependent enzymes, the so-called selenoproteins. These enzymes are involved in numerous metabolic processes – including the antioxidant selenium effect to protect the cells from free radicals. In addition, selenium is involved in the production of the thyroid hormones thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3).

Taurine

The amino sulphonic acid taurine can be produced by the body itself from the amino acids cysteine and methionine and is therefore not essential. Only infants have to consume taurine through their mother’s milk or milk substitutes, as they are not yet able to produce taurine themselves. Unlike other amino acids, taurine is not used in the body to build proteins and is therefore not proteinogenic. Nevertheless, taurine is found in many types of tissue, such as in the retina of the eye and in brain and muscle tissue. In the retina, taurine is involved in the formation of photoreceptors. Taurine is also thought to play an important role in brain development and stabilising the cell membrane. Furthermore, as a component of bile acids, taurine promotes the absorption of fat-soluble food components from the intestine into the blood.

Thiamin

Thiamin (or vitamin B1) belongs to the water-soluble vitamins of the B group. It is particularly important for energy metabolism in the mitochondria (the “power plants of the cell”), where it acts as coenzyme thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP) in the carbohydrate, protein and fat metabolism. Thiamine is also indispensable for the nervous system, as it is a component in the cell membranes of the nerve fibres and is involved in the exchange of information between the nerve cells and the transmission to the brain. In this way, it contributes to the normal functioning of the nervous system.

Vitamin A

Vitamin A belongs to the fat-soluble vitamins and is only found in animal-based foods such as milk, meat and eggs. Its precursors, including beta-carotene (also known as provitamin A) found in plant foods, can be converted into vitamin A depending on the body’s need. There are three compounds that are grouped under the term vitamin A and can be converted into each other. Retinoic acid is the biologically active vitamin and regulates the growth and development of cells and is involved in the development of many tissues and structures in the body (e.g., eyes, mucous membrane, skin, hair, teeth and bones). As a component of the photoreceptors of the retina, retinal is indispensable for the function of the visual process (especially light-dark vision). Retinol is the transport form of vitamin A, is found in the blood and is involved in sperm formation. Retinol and retinal protect the skin and mucous membranes and strengthen the barrier against bacteria, viruses and parasites. Vitamin A compounds also stimulate the formation of antibodies in the white blood cells and activate certain immune cells (T-lymphocytes) and contribute to normal immune system function.

Vitamin B12

The name vitamin B12 does not stand for a single chemical substance, but for several compounds with the same biological effect, the cobalamins. Cobalamins belong to the water-soluble vitamins of the B group and occur naturally, mainly in animal-based foods. They act as cofactors in numerous enzymatic reactions and are thereby involved in the protein, fat as well as carbohydrate metabolism, contributing to a normal energy metabolism. Cobalamins are furthermore necessary for the formation and regeneration of the body’s cells and are therefore important for all growth processes that are associated with cell division. Among other things, they are involved in the formation of DNA and take on important functions in the maturation of blood cells in the bone marrow. In addition, cobalamins contribute to normal functioning of the nervous system through their involvement in the regeneration and formation of nerve fibre sheaths (myelin) and in the formation of neurotransmitters.

Vitamin B6

Vitamin B6 (or pyridoxine) is one of the water-soluble vitamins. The term covers several chemical compounds, including pyridoxole, pyridoxamine and pyridoxal. Vitamin B6 is involved in many enzymatic reactions in protein, fatty acid and carbohydrate metabolism and thereby contributes to a normal energy metabolism. In addition, vitamin B6 is important for the production of hormones such as dopamine or serotonin through its involvement in amino acid metabolism. In addition, vitamin B6 plays a part in the production of red blood cells and cells of the immune system and thereby contributes to the normal function of the immune system.

Vitamin C

Vitamin C (or ascorbic acid) is a water-soluble vitamin and one of the most important vitamins for the body. As an antioxidant, vitamin C is involved in the regeneration of the “glutathione system”, which is a central part of the body’s “antioxidant network” for neutralising free radicals, thereby helping to protect cells from oxidative stress. In addition, vitamin C supports the immune system. Through its involvement in numerous metabolic processes, vitamin C contributes to normal energy metabolism and promotes iron absorption. Furthermore, vitamin C is involved in the production of collagen in the connective tissue.

Vitamin D

Vitamin D (or calciferol) is one of the fat-soluble vitamins and comprises two main forms: vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol) and vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol). The body can produce vitamin D itself with the help of sunlight, or it can be ingested through food or supplements. Vitamin D is involved in numerous processes in the body: in the intestine, vitamin D controls the absorption of calcium and phosphorus by stimulating their uptake and transport through the intestinal wall cells. In the bones and teeth, vitamin D promotes the storage of calcium (and other minerals such as magnesium and phosphate) and thereby contributes to the normal development of bones and teeth. In the muscles, vitamin D improves calcium absorption and thereby promotes the contractility as well as the regeneration of the muscles, contributing to the maintenance of normal muscle function. In addition, vitamin D contributes to the normal function of the immune system by being involved in the production of natural killer cells (macrophages). These cells are able to recognise and kill virus-infected cells. Vitamin D furthermore regulates the immune system’s response to foreign organisms or substances.

Vitamin E

Vitamin E is one of the fat-soluble vitamins and comprises a group of chemical compounds with vitamin E activity. The eight naturally occurring vitamin E compounds include four tocopherols (alpha, beta, gamma and delta) and four tocotrienols (alpha, beta, gamma and delta). Among these, tocopherols alone hold biological significance, of which alpha-tocopherol is the most active vitamin E compound. In order to better compare the effectiveness of vitamin E compounds, the vitamin E content of foods and the daily requirement are usually expressed as alpha-tocopherol equivalents (α-TE). 1 mg alpha-tocopherol equivalent corresponds to 1 mg alpha-tocopherol. alpha-tocopherol, as part of the “glutathione system”, is the most important fat-soluble antioxidant in the body and is mainly found in the cell membranes of the skin. It can neutralise free radicals by interrupting lipid peroxidation. Lipid peroxidation is the oxidative damage to lipids of the cell membrane, in the course of which free radicals “steal” electrons from polyunsaturated fatty acids, causing a chain reaction that leads to cell damage. Vitamin E inhibits this radical chain reaction by releasing a hydrogen atom and becoming a radical itself. However, the vitamin E radical is extremely inert and cannot continue lipid peroxidation due to its location in the cell membrane. Vitamin E thereby helps to protect cells, tissues and organs from oxidative damage.

Vitamin K

Vitamin K is one of the fat-soluble vitamins. Vitamin K comprises a group of compounds that have vitamin K activity. These include the plant-based phylloquinone (vitamin K1) and bacterial menaquinone (vitamin K2). The main function of vitamin K is the activation of so-called clotting factors. These are proteins that are responsible for clotting (thickening) the blood, which is extremely important for stopping bleeding. In addition, vitamin K is needed for building and maintaining bones. Vitamin K activates various proteins such as osteocalcin, which in activated form acts as a kind of “signpost” for calcium into the bones. Osteocalcin activated by vitamin K promotes the incorporation of calcium into bone tissue and at the same time inhibits bone resorption.

Zinc

Zinc, along with iron, is one of the quantitatively important trace elements. Zinc is present in every cell of the body, with the highest zinc content found in muscles and bones. As a component and activator of numerous enzymes, zinc is involved in a multitude of processes in the human body. For instance, zinc is involved in protein, fatty acid and carbohydrate metabolism as a component of enzymes. Zinc also contributes to normal DNA synthesis and is involved in cell division (during growth). Zinc is also important for the formation of sex hormones (e.g. testosterone), thyroid hormones, growth hormones, insulin and tissue hormones (prostaglandins). Zinc furthermore supports the normal function of the immune system due to its regulating properties on the immune response. Zinc is also involved in the antioxidant protection system against free radicals, helping to protect cells from oxidative stress.